Autonomous mobility at scale: A systems perspective from China
The recent Autonomous Vehicles Study Trip to China offered a unique- opportunity to observe, first-hand, what large-scale deployment of autonomous mobility looks like when technological innovation, infrastructure, regulation, and industrial capacity evolve in parallel. For CARNET, this experience was not simply about witnessing advanced solutions, but about critically assessing how these systems operate in real-world conditions, and what this means for Europe and Catalonia.
A key distinguishing feature of the Chinese approach is not a single technological breakthrough, but the systemic integration of the entire autonomous mobility value chain. Across cities such as Shenzhen, Guangzhou, and Zhengzhou, autonomous vehicles are no longer confined to pilot environments. Instead, they are embedded within public transport systems, operating in mixed traffic conditions and supported by mature operational frameworks.
One of the most relevant observations was the strong coupling between electrification and automation. In Shenzhen, a fully electrified bus fleet is supported by a dense network of high-capacity charging infrastructure and intelligent energy management systems. Visits to large-scale depots and charging hubs highlighted the increasing interdependence between energy and mobility systems, reinforcing the need for coordinated investment in both domains to enable autonomous mobility deployment.
Equally significant was the role of operational control centres. In both Guangzhou and Zhengzhou, fleet management is conducted through advanced “vehicle–road–cloud” architectures, where real-time data flows support continuous monitoring, optimisation, and safety validation. These systems shift the focus from individual vehicles to the orchestration layer that governs entire fleets. This has important implications for European deployment strategies, where discussions often remain centred on vehicle technology rather than system integration.
From a technical perspective, the maturity of Level 4 autonomous services in dense urban environments was particularly notable. Ride experiences in autonomous buses, minibuses, and robotaxis demonstrated a level of robustness that extends beyond controlled demonstrations. Vehicles operated smoothly in complex traffic conditions, interacting with pedestrians, cyclists, and human-driven vehicles with a high degree of predictability. This reinforces that the key challenge is no longer limited to perception or control algorithms, but to ensuring reliability at scale under diverse urban conditions.
Infrastructure design also emerged as a critical enabler. The intelligent, multi-storey bus depots observed in Shenzhen exemplify how cities are rethinking space allocation to accommodate automated fleets. For example, the depot visited can store up to 68 buses within a nine-storey structure. These facilities operate as automated dispatch systems, enabling high-frequency operations while optimising land use. This highlights an often-overlooked dimension in Europe: the need to redesign supporting infrastructure alongside vehicle deployment.
The industrial backbone underpinning these developments is equally significant. Visits to large-scale manufacturing facilities demonstrated how autonomous and electric vehicle production is already integrated into mass manufacturing processes. For instance, production lines are capable of delivering one premium bus every 45 minutes, with a total lead time of approximately 15 days from assembly to testing. This capacity to scale, from prototype to large fleets, remains a key gap in the European ecosystem and a critical factor in moving from pilot projects to widespread deployment.
However, one of the most relevant insights relates to governance. The Chinese model demonstrates a strong alignment between regulatory frameworks, technological development, and market deployment. Regulatory environments evolve in parallel with innovation, enabling rapid scaling while maintaining safety oversight. In contrast, Europe continues to face fragmentation across national and regional levels, which slows down deployment despite strong research and innovation capabilities.
In this context, CARNET plays a key role as a knowledge hub connecting academia, industry, and public authorities. By bridging these stakeholders, CARNET contributes to translating international insights into actionable strategies for Europe and Catalonia. Ongoing work in CCAM deployment, large-scale demonstrations, and participatory planning provides a complementary approach, one that emphasises inclusivity, governance, and integration within existing mobility systems.
The study trip reinforced the importance of moving beyond isolated pilots towards system-level thinking. In Catalonia, this implies integrating autonomous mobility into broader transport planning frameworks, ensuring alignment with sustainability objectives, and prioritising use cases where automation can deliver clear public value, such as first- and last-mile connections, collective transport, and logistics.
At the same time, international collaboration remains essential. Initiatives such as this study trip facilitate mutual learning and open pathways for joint pilot projects, standardisation efforts, and knowledge exchange. While Europe does not need to replicate the Chinese model, it must accelerate its own approach by leveraging its strengths in governance, safety, and user-centred design.
Ultimately, the future of autonomous mobility will depend not only on technological advancements, but on the ability to integrate systems at scale. China provides a compelling example of what is possible when this integration is achieved. For CARNET, the challenge, and opportunity, is to adapt these lessons to the European context, contributing to a deployment pathway that is technologically advanced, socially inclusive, environmentally sustainable, and operationally viable.
